Research+on+Selected+Subtopics

Learning Design

Smith, M. K. (2002) 'Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction and anadragogy', //the encyclopedia of informal education//, [|www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm]. The major problems of our age deal with human relations; the solutions can be found only in education. Skill in human relations is a skill that must be learned; it is learned in the home, in the school, in the church, on the job, and wherever people gather together in small groups. This fact makes the task of every leader of adult groups real, specific, and clear: Every adult group, of whatever nature, must become a laboratory of democracy, a place where people may have the experience of learning to live co-operatively. Attitudes and opinions are formed primarily in the study groups, work groups, and play groups with which adults affiliate voluntarily. These groups are the foundation stones of our democracy. Their goals largely determine the goals of our society. Adult learning should produce at least these outcomes: http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/finks5.htm


 * FINK'S FIVE PRINCIPLES OF GOOD COURSE DESIGN ||

By L. Dee Fink Reprinted with permission of the University of Oklahoma Instructional Development Program, July 19, 1999.

All courses require some "lower level" learning, i.e., comprehending and remembering basic information and concepts. But many courses never get beyond this. Examples of "higher level learning" include problem solving, decision making, critical thinking, and creative thinking. Some learning will be "passive", i.e., reading and listening. But "higher level learning," almost by definition, requires active learning. One learns to solve problems by solving problems; one learns to think critically by thinking critically; etc. Higher level learning and active learning require frequent and immediate feedback for students to know whether they are "doing it" correctly. "Frequent" means weekly or daily; feedback consisting of "two mid-terms and a final" is not sufficient. "Immediate" means during the same class if possible, or at the next class session. Any course needs a variety of forms of learning (e.g., lectures, discussions, small groups, writing, etc.), both to support different kinds of learning goals and different learning styles. But these various learning activities also need to be structured in a sequence such that earlier classes lay the foundation for complex and higher level learning tasks in later classes. Even when students feel they are learning something significant, they are unhappy if their grade does not reflect this. The grading system should be objective, reliable, based on learning, flexible, and communicated in writing. ||
 * A "good course" is one which meets the following five criteria:
 * 1) Challenges students to HIGHER LEVEL LEARNING.
 * 1) Uses ACTIVE FORMS OF LEARNING.
 * 1) Gives FREQUENT and IMMEDIATE FEEDBACK to students on the quality of their learning.
 * 1) Uses a STRUCTURED SEQUENCE OF DIFFERENT LEARNING ACTIVITIES.
 * 1) Has a FAIR SYSTEM FOR ASSESSING AND GRADING STUDENTS.

[] P L Cs: A Research-Based Approach to Professional Development Research findings have repeatedly confirmed that a significant factor in raising academic achievement is the improvement of instructional capacity in the classroom. Recent research shows that the kinds of professional development that improve instructional capacity display four critical characteristics (Senge 1990; Knapp 2003); they are: • ongoing • embedded within context-specific needs of a particular setting • aligned with reform initiatives • grounded in a collaborative, inquiry-based approach to learning Effective professional development to improve classroom teaching also concentrates on high learning standards and on evidence of students’ learning. It mirrors the kinds of teaching and learning expected in classrooms. It is driven fundamentally by the needs and interests of participants themselves, enabling adult learners to expand on content knowledge and practice that is directly connected with the work of their students in the classroom (Corcoran 1995; Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin 1995; Little 1988; Elmore 2002). Again, professional learning communities meet these criteria. 2 Professional Learning Communities Research demonstrates that the development of a strong professional community among educators is a key ingredient in improving schools (Fullan 1999; Langer 2000; Little and McLaughlin 1993; Louis, Kruse, and Marks 1996; Newmann and Associates 1996). Louis et al. (1995, p. 17) identify effective professional learning communities as being firmly embedded in the school and using schoolwide reform goals as the basis for teachers’ commitment and interaction. These professional learning communities provide opportunities for adults across a school system to learn and think together about how to improve their practice in ways that lead to improved student achievement. This kind of collaboration is rarely found in more traditional types of professional development or in common staff meeting time. p lc participants must collaborate effectively, working as a team and taking collective responsibility for the group’s outcomes. p l cs need a shared mission and vision, as well as shared norms and values to undergird the work and inform the goals to be achieved. They must engage in reflective dialogue and ongoing critical inquiry, maintain a sharp focus on student learning and results, and be open about their work and willing to present it in a public fashion. A strong accountability system should be in place to ensure that expectations for student performance are being met (adapted from Eaker et al. 2002 and from Hord 1997).

❖ Adult learning theory strengthens PLCs. Understanding what motivates adults to grow and learn enhances professional development and helps the school or district become a community of learners (Zepeda 1999). The p lc approach is grounded in adult learning theory and evidences several characteristics important to adult learners. For example, as autonomous and self-directed adults, professional educators need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction, and they often reject prescriptions by others for their learning. In addition, adults have accumulated a foundation of experiences, knowledge, skills, interests, and competence; they are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their jobs or personal lives. Like learners of all ages, adults need to see the results of their efforts and to get feedback about progress toward their goals (Lieb 1991; Dalellew and Martinez 1988; Zemke and Zemke 1995).

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During online professional development, if learners are invited to search the Internet and then bookmark sites and add them to the course as resources for all learners, it creates a collaborative environment. Then, as the instructor, if the sites are incorporated into the course for added enrichment, it is very engaging and empowering for the learners that added them. This demonstrates a real sense of ownership—and creates buy-in. In addition, “there’s a sense that it’s not an expert transmitting information to novices, but a community of people putting the elephant together, where one understands the trunk and one the ear and one the tail and so on” (p. 14).======

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“The whole idea behind designing a learning community, whether it’s face-to-face, online, or blended, is that it has to be rewarding enough for each of its participants that they’ll participate regularly even though they’re busy and that they will share their knowledge with other people in the community, knowing that in turn the community is going to share with them and help them” (p. 14 and 16).======

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“The benefit of building a community online is that many people feel dis-inhibited online. They’re more likely to express themselves online than they are sitting in a face-to-face group, even teachers, even with skilled facilitation. The counterargument to that, though, is that it may be harder to build trust, because face-to-face you have a greater bandwidth with the other people, and so you see what they look like and you get a feel from them, using all the nonverbal dimensions of human interaction. It may be easier for you to feel you know them well enough that you can take some risks with them. Whereas online, where you’re in a low-bandwidth medium, you really don’t know some things about other people to the same depth that you would face-to-face” (p. 16).======

=**iPod Design Team Training (see Case Study example)**= Submitted by Rhonda Jindra

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Community was built through common learning. All learners—both teacher and students---were provided time to explore, investigate and play. This was done both collaboratively and individually. Because of a common goal (becoming comfortable with the iPod and using applications to meet personal and professional goals), learners quickly discovered that collaboration increased knowledge and skill.======

How was “community” built into the process?

 * ======“Community” began with the October Apple Briefing.======
 * ======The presenter/facilitator created a wiki that was made available to the learners on Day 1. The wiki provided an opportunity to “share the learning” with one another. It was also an easy way to put “names and faces” together.======
 * ======Both teachers and students had the opportunity to share what they had learned—this was especially noted during the April Follow-Up.======
 * ======During the Follow-Up, iPads were in the room and made available to teachers and students. Students would cluster together and “play”. Teachers did the same thing—and often times, a student would offer assistance and teachers accepted their help.======
 * ======Students connected with the presenter via Skype (this was unplanned community-building).======